"I do not insist that my argument is right in all other respects, but I would contend at all costs both in word and deed as far as I could that we will be better men, braver and less idle, if we believe that one must search for the things one does not know, rather than if we believe that it is not possible to find out what we do not know and that we must not look for it."---Socrates

VIRTUE ETHICS

Part 2

(Please be advised that this essay is only meant as an overview of this topic. The essay contains some very brief summaries of some complex ethical theories. It is advised that if you wish to learn more, you should seek out books or other materials on this topic. There are many excellent books on this subject available at any major bookstore. There are also numerous resources available on the Internet.)

"The test of a society is perhaps not its conformance or nonconformance to principles but the nature and human prosperity of its members. Let each look about himself and judge for himself the success of his own society. Man lives confused in the ruins of ideologies. Perhaps he will someday emerge from the caves and pens of his past. That would be a beautiful day to see. There would be a sunlit world waiting for him"
(Slave Girl of Gor, p.212)

In Part 1 of this essay, we discussed agent vs action-centered moralities and the nature of virtue ethics. Part 1 then ended with a series of questions, questions centering this discussion on Gorean philosophy. Ethics are very important in many philosophies and Gorean philosophy is not an exception. Yet, it is a matter that is not largely addressed as such online. There are rarely discussions on the overall ethics of Gor. If anything, there are discussions on specific ethical aspects but rarely the entirety. Yet to understand the specifics, it is beneficial to see the whole. So, let us explore the whole, seeking the foundation for Gorean ethics.

The first and most obvious place to start is the religion of Gor. Religion is often the basis for morality, especially modern day moralities on Earth. So, can we find a theological basis for the morality of Gor? Does the theology of Gorean religion provide a concept of good and evil? The primary religion on Gor involves the worship of the Priest-Kings, the mysterious "gods" of Gor. This religion is presided over by the Initiate Caste, the highest Caste, and they help to ensure that the Priest-Kings receive their due worship. There are some other religions on Gor, but they are generally limited to specific cultures on Gor, commonly the "barbarian" cultures of Gor. For example, the Wagon Peoples worship the Spirit of the Sky and Torvaldslanders worship gods such as Odin and Thor. But, even these cultures generally accept the existence of the Priest-Kings though they do not show them worship.

If we examine what is known of the religion of the Priest-Kings, we do not see much of a base for morality. The religion seems most concerned with following certain rituals and basic worship. "We speak not to man's heart," said Om, "but only to his fear. We do not speak of love and courage, and loyalty and nobility - but of practice and observance, and the punishment of the Priest-Kings - " (Priest-Kings of Gor, p.300) There is nothing similar to the Christian "Ten Commandments." The Priest-Kings have not given Goreans a list of how they should and should not act. Essentially the only important prohibition promulgated by the Priest-Kings is the Technology and Weapon Laws. These laws simply restrict the available technology on Gor. The punishment for a violation of this prohibition is the Flame Death. The religion of the Priest Kings does not include an afterlife and immortality can only be achieved by members of the Initiate Caste. Thus, a person who violates the rules of the Priest-Kings will not go to any place like a Hell. We can also see that there is not a concept of good and evil embodied by the Priest-Kings. We see only a desire for obedience to their few rules. The religion of Gor is more similar to the religion of the ancient Greeks. Thus, it does not form an adequate basis for a foundation of morality so we must seek elsewhere for the ethics of Gor.

We do not have to seek too far to find an important lead to the ethics of Gor. "The ethical teachings of Gor, which are independent of the claims and propositions of the Initiates, amount to little more than the Caste Codes--- collections of sayings whose origins are lost in antiquity." (Tarnsman of Gor, p.40-1) Is this the key to the ethics of Gor? If so, do the Caste Codes create an action-centered morality? Since the Castes Codes are different for each Caste, does that mean there are multiple moralities on Gor? As Castes do not exist on Earth, is it thus impossible to follow the ethics of Gor? To discern the answers to these questions, we should examine the Caste Codes of Gor.

Unfortunately, there is little specific information on the Caste Codes of Gor within the Gorean books. The books contain mainly information regarding the Warrior Caste Code and nearly nothing on the specific Code provisions of any other Caste. At best, there might be an indication of one or two provisions of the Caste Codes of these other Castes. And even in the case of the Warrior Caste, the known Code provisions number only a few dozen. As one of these Code provisions is described as the "97th Aphorism" then we can be sure that there are many omitted Code provisions. Thus, the evidence we can examine is limited.

But, if we do analyze the known Code provisions, we can form a tentative conclusion that in general these provisions form a professional code of ethics more than a general code of ethics. By this, I mean that the ethics are tied to the specific Caste's performance of their professional duties. This would be similar to the ethical codes of attorneys and physicians on Earth. Such ethical codes are intended to apply primarily to the operation of one's profession rather than one's day to day living. The Caste Codes of Gor commonly tell one how to perform their job properly. For example, one of the known provisions of the Merchant's Code is that they must always be paid for their products or services. They must not provide such matters for free. The Warrior Caste Code states specifics such as the battle of sword right, the details of being a Ubar, and what happens when a woman submits to a Warrior. We really see little of general ethical strictures within the Caste Codes. Thus, the Caste Codes simply form many different professional codes of ethics, each Code intrinsically linked to its specific profession.

So, is Gorean morality then tied to the Caste Codes? Is professional ethics the only type of ethical system on Gor? If this were true, then it would be impossible to follow Gorean ethics. First, Earth does not have a Caste system like Gor and it would be near impossible to create such a system on Earth. Second, the specific Caste Codes of Gor are almost nonexistent. Though you could try to create your own Code provisions, there would be no guarantee that they would be Gorean. Even the Warrior Caste Code is largely incomplete. Thankfully, the Caste Codes are not the only source for the ethics of Gor though the existence and nature of the Caste system is an excellent indicator of the source of the underlying ethics of Gorean philosophy.

In a previous essay, we discussed the correlation of the Gorean Caste system to the system proposed by Plato in The Republic for his ideal city. We showed how the system of the High and Low Castes emulated the divisions within Plato's ideal city. In addition, we showed that Plato's divisions were intended to reflect the four cardinal virtues of Greek morality: wisdom, courage, self-control and justice. Now, if Gor is truly reflective of Plato's ideas in The Republic would it also reflect the virtue ethics of it as well? Would Gor thus reflect an agent-centered morality? A careful examination of the Gorean books would seem to indicate that Gorean morality does indeed reflect the virtue ethics of ancient Greece.

We must first accept the basic premise that there is an overriding general morality of Gor, independent of the Caste system. This would be a commonality that binds all Goreans, of whatever Caste. And this premise should be easy to accept. It seems quite obvious from a reading of the books that some general ethical mandates are followed by the vast majority of Goreans. Now, we have seen that there is not a theological base for Gorean morality. We have also seen that the Caste Codes generally provide only a professional ethical code and not a common morality. As the Codes vary from Caste to Caste, there is no reason to see them as forming a common foundation for Gorean morality. These two matters would thus lead to the conclusion that Gor does not possess an action-centered morality as there is not a proper foundation for determining which acts are and are not ethical. And if it is not action-centered, then it is most likely agent-centered.

Of the agent-centered moralities, virtue ethics is the most common. And as Gor was largely influenced by ancient Greece and Rome, it seems appropriate that their moralities would be similar. This is heavily supported by the significant influence of Plato's The Republic on Gor. And much within the Gorean books does support the concept of virtue ethics. Gor would seem to rely on the four cardinal virtues and in addition consider certain other virtues to also be of importance. Plato himself accepted the validity of other virtues besides the four cardinal ones. It is simply the four cardinal ones which are the most significant in one's life.

The four cardinal virtues include wisdom, courage, self-control and justice. These four virtues would form the inner core, the essential elements of Gorean morality. Other virtues, such as honor and honesty, though important, are secondary to this inner core. Someone possessing the four core virtues would be most likely to possess these secondary virtues as well. Though that would not necessarily work in reverse. For example, you could have an honest coward. A man of courage though would tend not to lie as he would not fear the consequences of the truth. Honor is a derivative virtue, valuable because of the individual virtues that comprise the whole.

Thus, those who wish to follow a Gorean philosophy need to cultivate the four cardinal virtues. These virtues are not limited to Caste, city or status. They are meant to apply to all people, all Goreans. Cultivating such virtues are not generally considered a part of modern Earth moralities. Modern Earth moralities are more intended to dictate one's behavior, to indicate which actions are permissible and desirable. Thus, trying to emulate Gorean virtue ethics runs contrary to ordinary societal conditioning. It is the adoption of a radically different ethical stance, one requiring a substantial change of view. It is the cultivation of the self, rather than the blind adherence to a set of rules and regulations.

Aristotle stated that the goal of the cultivation of virtues is eudaimonia, which is often translated as happiness. But, that is not a fully adequate translation as such happiness is not what we would commonly definite it as. It is much closer to a "life of fulfillment" or a "worthy life." And this theme of fulfillment runs throughout the Gor novels, further supporting that Gorean ethics is based on virtue ethics. "Civilization may be predicated upon the denial of human nature; it may also be predicated upon its fulfillment." (Explorers of Gor, p.37) Will you spend you life living in denial or will you cultivate the primary virtues and seek a life of fulfillment?

"On Earth men have succeeded in building a complicated trap from which they may perhaps be unable to escape. Perhaps they can shatter its bars. Perhaps, in the cage they themselves have built, they will merely languish and die."
(Tribesman of Gor, p.318)

Next Issue: Imaginative Sex